주석 산화물 나노 입자의 친환경적이고 비용 효율적인 합성:합성 방법론, 형성 메커니즘 및 잠재적 응용에 대한 검토

녹색 합성 주석 산화물 나노입자의 생물학적 적용

녹색 합성 SnO₂ NP는 벌크 형태에 비해 향상된 광촉매, 항균, 항산화 및 항암 활성을 보였다. 이 섹션에서는 녹색 합성 SnO₂의 응용 분야에 대해 논의했습니다. 다양한 분야의 NP를 미래 전망을 위한 새로운 연구원에게 안내합니다.

항균 활동

많은 연구자들이 항균 활성 SnO₂를 관찰했습니다. NP. 예를 들어 SnO₂의 항균 활성 알로에 베라를 사용하여 합성된 NP 식물 추출물은 E를 사용하여 연구되었습니다. 대장균 및 S. 구균 . NP가 S에 대해 더 활성인 것으로 제안되었습니다. 구균 E보다 대장균 [58]. 이것은 E의 세포벽 때문일 수 있습니다. 대장균 S보다 복잡합니다. 구균 . S. 구균 두꺼운 펩티도글리칸으로 구성된 막을 가지고 있습니다. 그러나 E의 세포벽은 대장균 펩티도글리칸 층과 지질다당류로 구성된 외막이 있습니다. E의 외막. 대장균 acts as a barrier that lowers the penetration level of ROS into the cell [90,91,92]. Another reason could be the difference in the polarity of their cell membrane. The membrane of S aureus has a more positive charge than E. 대장균 , which result in greater penetration level of negatively charged free radicals causing more cell damage and death in S. 구균 than in E. 대장균 [93, 94]. The antibacterial activity of SnO₂ NPs synthesized using Punica granatum seed extract has been tested against E. coli. The bactericidal effect increased with increasing the concentration of the nanoparticles [95]. SnO₂ NPs synthesized using Trigonella foenum-graecum seed extract also showed similar antibacterial activity against E. 대장균 [72]. In a recent study, Clerodendrum inerme leave extract was used for the synthesis of un-doped and Co-doped SnO₂ NPs [96]. The green synthesized un-doped and Co-doped SnO₂ NPs were subjected toward antimicrobial activity against five disease-causing pathogens such as E. 대장균 , B. subtillis , A. niger , A. flavus , and C. Albicans, , and their zone of inhibition diameters (ZOIs), minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) were calculated. The Co-doped SnO₂ NPs showed substantial antibacterial activity against E. 대장균 and B. subtillis in a concentration-dependent manner compared to the un-doped SnO₂ NPs, plant extract, and standard drugs in terms of their MIC (22 ± 0.7, 18 ± 0.8 mg/mL) and MBC (31 ± 0.9, 21 ± 0.6 mg/mL) as well as ZOIs (30 ± 0.08, 26 ± 0.06 nm), respectively. The authors suggested that the broad-spectrum antibacterial activity of Co-doped SnO₂ NPs is due to cobalt doping, which leads to increased grain size and surface area of the NPs as compared to un-doped SnO₂ NP. As more is the surface area with smaller particle sizes, the greater will be the antimicrobial activity. The associations of biomolecules like flavonoids and phenolic compounds with Co-doped SnO₂ NPs are also responsible for the enhancement of their antimicrobial activity. Furthermore, the green synthesized Co-doped SnO₂ NPs showed extraordinary antifungal activity with maximum ZOIs of 17 ± 0.04, 23 ± 0.08, and 26 ± 0.06 nm against A. niger , A. flavus, and C. Albicans, respectively, in comparison with plant extract, un-doped SnO₂ NPs, and standard drugs [96].

The actual mechanism of action of SnO₂ NPs against microbial strains is still unknown. However, several mechanisms of action against bacteria have been suggested for metal oxide nanoparticles, such as the decomposition of nanoparticles, electrostatic interaction of nanoparticles with the cell wall of microorganisms, and formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by the effect of light radiation [97,98,99]. One possible cause for the antibacterial effect of SnO₂ NPs may be the accumulation of the NPs on the surface of the bacterial cell membrane. The ROS generated due to the presence of SnO₂ NPs interacts with the cell membrane and disturbs the membrane permeability and respiration system of the bacteria, which leads to cell death [72, 95, 100]. For instance, Khan et al. suggested that the release of Sn ⁴⁺ 및 공동 ²⁺ is responsible for the damage of bacterial DNA and mitochondria, which inactivates the bacterial enzyme and finally leads to cell death [96].

Antioxidant Activity

Many researchers examined the antioxidant activity of NPs by monitoring the ability in quenching of stable DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) radical into non-radical form (DPPH-H). Kamaraj et al. [101] reported the antioxidant activity of SnO₂ NPs biosynthesized using Cleistanthus Collinus leaves extract. The antioxidant activity of SnO₂ NPs increased with increasing concentration of SnO₂ NPs and reaction time. In another study [95], the free radical scavenging activity of green synthesized SnO₂ NPs increased in a dose-dependent manner. However, the annealed sample exhibited a lower scavenging activity as compared to the as-prepared sample. The decrease in scavenging activity with increasing annealing temperature may be due to a decrease in surface area-to-volume ratio of the NPs. Moreover, the antioxidant efficacy of SnO₂ NPs against DPPH is due to the transfer of electron density between the NPs and the free radical located at nitrogen in DPPH. A similar result was found for SnO₂ NPs synthesized using Trigonelle foenum-graecum aqueous extract [72]. Hong et al. [67] reported significant antioxidant properties of biosynthesized SnO₂ NP. The antioxidant activity of the biosynthesized SnO₂ increased with increasing concentration of the NPs, with IC₅₀ (half-maximal inhibitory concentration) value of 2257.4 µg/ml. Recently, Khan et al. reported significant antioxidant activity of Co-doped SnO₂ NPs, as compared to un-doped SnO₂ NPs and plant extract [96].

Cytotoxic Activity

SnO₂ NPs synthesized using an aqueous extract of agricultural waste of dried peel of Annona squamosa were evaluated for cytotoxicity test against the hepatocellular carcinoma cell line (HepG2) [64]. TEM results revealed the loss of cell volume, considerable swelling of the cells, and nuclear condensation. The nuclear condensation seen in SnO₂ NP-treated HepG2 cells might be due to the breakdown of chromatin in the nucleus. SnO₂ NPs inhibited cell proliferation in a dose- and time-dependent manner with an IC₅₀ value of 148 µg/mL. SnO₂ NPs synthesized using piper nigrum seed extract exhibited higher cytotoxic activity against colorectal (HCT116) and lung (A549) cancer cell lines [69]. The proliferation of both cancer cell lines increased with increasing NPs size. Besides, a gradual decline in cell viability was observed with increasing dosage of SnO₂ NP. The authors concluded that the cytotoxic effect was associated with the generation of oxidative stress from reactive oxygen species (ROS). SnO₂ NPs fabricated by using Pruni spinosae flos aqueous extract revealed an excellent cytotoxic effect against non-small cell lung cancer cell A549 and lung fibroblast CCD-39Lu cells, in concentration- and time-dependent manner [70]. Recently, Khan et al. [96] investigated the in vitro cytotoxic effect of green synthesized un-doped SnO₂ NPs and Co-doped SnO₂ NPs against mammary gland breast cancer (MCF-7), human amnion (WISH), and human lung fibroblast (WI38) cell lines by a colourimetric technique 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazdium bromide (MTT) assay. The green synthesized Co-doped SnO₂ NPs showed significant and substantial mortality rate compared to un-doped SnO₂ NPs, plant extract, and standard drug 5-FU (5-5-5-fluorouracil), while un-doped SnO₂ NPs exhibited a similar mortality rate to that of the standard drug, but the lowest cytotoxicity against breast cancer cell line was observed with the plant extract. The cytotoxic effect of the plant extract, green synthesized un-doped SnO₂ , and Co-doped SnO₂ NPs was performed with IC₅₀ values of 31.56 ± 1.4, 26.99 ± 1.9, and 18.15 ± 1.0 µg/mL for MCF-7, and 40.69 ± 0.9, 38.97 ± 0.8, and 36.80 ± 0.6 µg/mL for WI38, and 38.56 ± 0.8, 35.56 ± 0.9, and 31.10 ± 0.7 µg/mL, respectively, and depicted that the cytotoxicity of Co-doped SnO₂ NPs was more proficient as compared to plant extract and un-doped SnO₂ NPs alone. Additionally, the authors reported excellent observational results showing greater in vitro inhibition of breast cancer MCF-7 cell lines in a concentration- and dose-dependent manner. The green synthesized NPs also showed robust cytotoxicity against MCF-7 as compared to WI38 and WISH normal cell lines with Co-doped SnO₂ NPs unveiling higher ROS generation than the un-doped SnO₂ NP. Figure 5 shows the probable cytotoxicity mechanism of green synthesized SnO₂ NPs.

Mechanism during cytotoxicity of green synthesized SnO₂ NP

Photocatalytic Activity

The uncontrolled release of toxic chemicals, hazardous textile dyes, and pesticides from various industries into the running water has led to severe environmental problems. These superfluous water contaminants cause long-term adverse effects and pose a real threat to aquatic and human life. Besides, some organic dyes are carcinogenic and toxic. Hence, treating water that contains poisonous chemicals before disposal to the environment is very crucial to reduce environmental pollution. Recent studies have shown that nanostructured semiconductor metal oxides act as an excellent photocatalyst for the removal of various water pollutants [102,103,104,105]. Among the semiconductor metal oxides, SnO₂ is extensively used in the removal of common textile dyes and organic compounds owing to its beneficial characteristics, which include physical and chemical stability, high surface reactivity, high photocatalytic efficiency, low cost, and low toxicity [68, 106]. Manjula et al. [107] synthesized SnO₂ nanoparticles using glucose. The NPs were effectively used as a catalyst in degrading methyl orange (MO) dye. The effect of calcination temperature (150–500 °C) on the photocatalytic activity of the NPs was investigated, and the results revealed that the as-synthesized SnO₂ NPs calcinated at 150 °C is the best photocatalyst for the reaction under study among the studied materials. Moreover, the as-prepared SnO₂ nanoparticles degraded methyl orange completely in 30 min, and also, the nanomaterials may be recycled with enhanced efficiency a minimum of five times. In another study [108], the photocatalytic activity of the SnO₂ QDs (quantum dots) synthesized by using serine was evaluated by monitoring the optical absorption spectra of eosin Y solution under direct sunlight. It was observed that the rate of degradation of eosin Y using SnO₂ QDs (98%) is higher than that using commercial SnO₂ (96%) and P25 (88%). Begum et al. [84] reported the synthesis of SnO₂ NPs using an amino acid, L-lysine monohydrate. The synthesized nanoparticles were evaluated for their photocatalytic behavior toward toxic organic dyes, namely malachite green oxalate (MGO) and Victoria blue B (VBB) under direct sunlight. The absorption peak of these dyes has begun to reduce, which shows that the chromophore structure has been demolished (Fig. 6). Furthermore, the as-prepared SnO₂ NPs exhibited an outstanding photocatalytic degradation of MGO (97.3%) and VBB (98%) dye within 120 min. Literature reports on the photocatalytic activity of green synthesized SnO₂ NPs are summarized in Table 3.

Photocatalytic degradation of malachite green oxalate dye under solar irradiation using SnO₂ NP

Gas-Sensing Property

Many metal oxide-based gas sensors are widely used for gas-sensing applications. However, SnO₂ NPs has gained tremendous attention in gas sensing under atmospheric conditions because of its beneficial properties, which include high sensitivity, high selectivity, easy reversibility, and cheap manufacturing costs. Green synthesized porous SnO₂ nanospheres demonstrated excellent gas sensing capabilities [107]. It was observed that the assimilation of 0.5 wt% Pd into the SnO₂ matrix improved the sensitivity and made it highly selective for low-temperature hydrogen detection. Moreover, the fabric was able to respond to even 50 ppm H₂ in N₂ at room temperature with an interval of 10 s. These sensing properties are due to the synergetic effect of both the porous structure of SnO₂ nanospheres and also the catalytic property of Pd nanoparticles. Gattu et al. [77] reported the gas-sensing behavior of biosynthesized and chemically synthesized Ni-doped SnO₂ NPs thin films. The biosynthesized Ni-doped SnO₂ NPs thin film showed higher NO₂ gas-sensing response as compared to the chemically synthesized ones. The sensor response was found to be increased with Ni doping for both biosynthesized and chemically synthesized Ni-doped SnO₂ NP. This may be due to the reduction of particle size with Ni-doping, which results in increased surface area for adsorption of NO₂ 가스. Furthermore, the Ni-doped SnO₂ thin film exhibited excellent selectivity toward NO₂ gas when put next to other gases like NH₃ , LPG and H₂ S. In another study [78], the gas-sensing properties of un-doped and Fe-doped SnO₂ NPs synthesized using Cicer arietnum L. extract were reported. The gas response within the presence of 100 ppm NH₃ gas at 200 °C operating temperature was found to be 28% for un-doped SnO₂ and 46% for Fe-doped SnO₂ thin films. Moreover, the Fe-doped SnO₂ -based sensor was found to be more selective for NH₃ gas as compared to the un-doped SnO₂ 감지기. The biosynthesized Au-doped SnO₂ NPs were found to be highly sensitive to NO₂ gas at 200 °C operating temperature [79]. Gas sensor supported Au-doped SnO₂ NPs showed the gas response of ~ 30% for 100 ppm of NO₂ 가스. Additionally, the gas sensor of Au-doped SnO₂ NPs showed excellent selectivity toward NO₂ gas when put next to other gases like H₂ S, LPG, and NH₃ . The improved gas response and selectivity toward NO₂ gas are because of the lattice distortion induced by Au-doping and also the oxygen vacancies generation within the SnO₂ lattice.