아 IQE 곡선 및 b IQE는 8, 5, 3, 2 및 1 QW의 LED의 낮은 전류 밀도에서 곡선을 이룹니다. ㄷ 0.1A/cm
2
에서 8, 5, 3, 2 및 1 QW가 있는 LED의 EL 스펙트럼
그림>
시뮬레이션 결과는 1QW가 가장 높은 EL 강도를 가지며 낮은 전류 밀도에서 작동하는 마이크로 LED에 가장 적합한 구조일 수 있음을 보여줍니다. 그러나 실험적으로 평평한 표면과 날카로운 계면을 갖는 하나의 QW만을 에피택셜 성장시키는 것은 어렵다. 또한 1QW 구조의 경우 피크 IQE의 위치가 2.9A/cm2로 약간 증가합니다.
2
, IQE 곡선의 모양도 약간 변경되었습니다. 이는 단일 QW의 특수한 상황으로 설명할 수 있다. 다른 QW에 비해 EBL에 인접한 QW는 특수한 분극 환경을 갖고 있어 '문제 QW'로 간주된다. 이 주제는 AlGaN EBL 섹션에서 더 자세히 논의될 것입니다. . 이러한 이유를 고려할 때, 2QW는 캐리어 플럭스, 가까운 IQE 값 및 1QW에 대한 EL 강도의 유사한 양호한 매칭을 갖는 최상의 활성 영역 디자인이어야 합니다. 따라서 다음 섹션에서 모든 시뮬레이션은 2QW가 있는 마이크로 LED를 기반으로 합니다.
P-GaN 도핑 농도 :p 가 다른 2QW LED의 성능 - p 의 유형 도핑 농도 -GaN은 추가로 조사됩니다. 도 6a에 도시된 바와 같이, p 의 도핑 농도가 -1 × 10
18
에서 증가하는 GaN cm
−3
~ 5 × 10
19
cm
−3
, 0.1A/cm
2
에서의 복사 재결합 속도 두 QW에 대해 약 3.1% 및 3.0% 추가로 증가합니다. 그림 6b는 총 정공 전류 밀도가 0.157에서 0.162A/cm
2
로 증가함을 보여줍니다. 한편, 누설 전자 전류 밀도는 0.009에서 0.005A/cm
2
로 감소합니다. 도핑 농도의 증가와 함께. n 근처의 QW에서 재결합 전류가 -side가 p 근처의 QW보다 높습니다. -측면(그림 6b). 따라서 n 부근의 복사재결합율은 -side QW도 p 근처보다 약간 높습니다. -사이드 QW. As shown in Fig. 6c, one can find that the energy barrier for carriers in EBL, which is defined as the energy distance between the electron/hole quasi-Fermi level and the highest conduction band or lowest valence band, are almost unchanged under differnt doping concentration of p -GaN, that is, the hole injection is not improved by increasing doping concentration. Figure 6d shows the average hole concentration in the p -GaN and QWs. The hole concentration in the p -GaN is almost exponentially dependent on the doping concentration. Inside the QWs, the hole concentration is increased approximately twice from 1.59 × 10
19
cm
−3
to 3.08 × 10
19
cm
−3
with a higher doping concentration. These results indicate that the increased hole concentration is the main contribution for the improvement of radiative recombination. Therefore, even at low current density, the p -type doping problem of nitride remains notable, and enhancing the doping efficiency and hole concentration is still beneficial for the efficiency of micro-LED.
아 Radiative recombination rates of 2QWs LED with various doping concentrations in p-GaN. ㄴ Carrier current distribution with different doping concentrations in p -GaN. ㄷ Enlarged energy band diagrams of EBL with different doping concentrations in p -GaN. d Average hole concentration in p -GaN and QWs with various doping concentrations of p -GaN
그림>
AlGaN EBL :In the last decades, a 10–20 nm p -type AlGaN EBL has become a standard structure for traditional nitride-based LEDs. This EBL is considered to block the electron leakage and suppress the efficiency droop under high injected current density. In spite of this, it is worth noting that the EBL is still a very complicated, subtle structure for the LED. It involves many important factors, including Al composition, p -type doping efficiency of AlGaN, band offset ratios, and polarization effect. Each of them can influence the band structure and carrier transport substantially, then determines the effectiveness of EBL. For the construction of EBL, thickness, composition, and doping concentration must be considered and optimized carefully to balance the enhancement of electron confinement and the blocking of hole injection, otherwise, the opposite may happen, and the performance of LED might deteriorate. For micro-LED, the effectiveness of EBL for operating at low current density must be reconsidered, which may be different with the case of traditional high input/output LED.
a. Doping concentration of EBL :First, the effect of EBL doping concentration on carrier transport at low current density is investigated. The thickness and Al composition of EBL are fixed as 20 nm and 0.15, respectively. Considering the low solubility of Mg dopant in AlGaN, the crystal degradation, and compensation effect by over-doping [50], the doping concentration of EBL is first set as be 3 × 10
18
cm
−3
. Figure 7a shows the corresponding energy band structure. Clearly, despite the existence of EBL, the electron leakage out of the QW still can be caused by the insufficient electron confinement due to the downward bending of the last QW and EBL. A new energy valley under the electron quasi-Fermi level appears at the interface of last QB and EBL. Thus, electrons would escape from QW and accumulate in this area. This distortion of band structure makes the EBL relatively ineffective, and it can be contributed to the polarization effect. As shown in Fig. 7c, the strong polarization induces a large amount of charges at the interfaces. Due to the unbalanced polarization charges are positive at the interface of the last QB/EBL, a large electrostatic field pointing from the p -side to the n -side builds up in the last QB, which is opposite to the fields in other QBs and EBL. These electrostatic fields pull down the energy band of the last QB and EBL. Moreover, the electric fields in the last QW and last QB both can attract electrons and drive them out of the active region into the p -layer. This can be observed in the carrier concentration diagram, as shown in Fig. 7d. The dotted black line indicates that a part of the electrons escape from the active region and accumulate at the interface of last QB/EBL. In the EBL and p -GaN, the leakage electron remains relatively high.
Energy band diagrams of 2QWs LED with a 3 × 10
18
cm
−3
그리고 b 6 × 10
19
cm
−3
doping concentration in AlGaN EBL. ㄷ Space charge density and d carrier concentration distribution of 2QWs LED with 3 × 10
18
and 6 × 10
19
cm
−3
doping concentration of EBL. The inset of c shows the direction of polarization fields
그림>
On the other hand, the EBL also introduces a potential barrier as high as 480 meV for hole injection. Moreover, as shown in Fig. 7a, c, an energy valley close to the hole quasi-Fermi level appears at the interface region between the EBL/p -GaN due to the polarization effect. As indicated by the solid black line of Fig. 7d, most of the holes are blocked by the EBL and thus, accumulate at the energy valley of the EBL/p -GaN interface. Owing to this inefficient carrier transport, the last QW is considered as a “problem QW,” and the EBL only has a low capability for electron confinement, and should be responsible for the poor hole injection. Compared with the traditional high input/output LED, this polarization induced ineffectiveness of the EBL function could be particularly severe for the micro-LED due to the enhanced polarization effect by less carrier screening at low current density.
Band engineering by increasing the doping concentration of EBL is a possible method to improve the electron confinement and hole injection. The activation energy of Mg dopant in AlGaN EBL is higher than GaN, therefore, even under a similar doping concentration, the active hole concentration in EBL remains much lower than p -GaN. The lower hole concentration could further separate the hole quasi-Fermi level and valence band, then increase barrier height. Based on this analysis, the doping concentration of EBL needs to be much higher than p -GaN. Considering the doping limitation in actual experiment, 6 × 10
19
cm
−3
is selected as a new doping concentration in the EBL. As shown in Fig. 7b, by increasing the doping concentration, the valence band of EBL is lifted due to the alignment of hole quasi-Fermi level, resulting in a reduced hole energy barrier of 281 meV. Moreover, the high p -type doping also helps lower the electron quasi-Fermi level with respect to the conduction band in EBL, hence increasing the effect barrier for electron leakage to 1175 meV. These changes improve electron confinement and hole injection. Figure 7d shows that compared with the doping concentration of 3 × 10
18
cm
−3
, the hole concentration in the active region is greatly increased, and the leakage electron in the EBL and p -GaN is reduced to almost zero. However, the energy valley at the interface between the EBL/p -GaN still exists. Moreover, the upward of valence band also introduces a new energy valley for the hole accumulation at the interface between the last QB/EBL, which can be confirmed by the hole concentration distribution in Fig. 7d. These energy valleys can impede the hole injection into QWs, hence compensating the advantage of high doping concentration.
b. Al composition of EBL :Compared with the increase of doping concentration, reducing the composition of AlGaN EBL may be an easier, more efficient method to improve the carrier transport at low current density. The effectiveness of EBL is sensitively dependent on Al composition, band offset, and polarization effect. Increasing the Al composition of EBL can increase the band offset between the last QB/EBL, which increases the electron barrier height. However, as shown in Fig. 8a, the polarization-induced charges at the interfaces also increase accordingly, which pull down the electron barrier height. Two mechanisms have the opposite effect for confining electrons.
아 Space charge density distribution of 2QWs LED with different EBL. The inset shows the direction of polarization field. Energy band diagrams of 2QWs LED b with Al0.1 Ga0.9 N EBL and c without EBL. d Carrier concentration distribution, e carrier current density, f IQE and g EL spectra of 2QWs LED with different EBL. The inset of g shows the working voltages at 0.1 and 1 A/cm
2
with different EBLs
그림>
Based on this analysis, the carrier transport of 2QWs micro-LEDs with different EBL structures at 200 and 0.1 A/cm
2
are investigated. The result of effective energy barrier heights of different EBL are summarized in Table 1. First of all, both the electron and hole energy barriers at low current density are much higher than the cases of at high current density due to the lower nonequilibrium carrier population. A higher energy barrier can improve the electron confinement, but also severely impedes the hole injection at low current density. This indicates that the influence of EBL on the carrier transport of micro-LED operating at low current density is much higher than that of the traditional high input/output LED. Table 1 also shows that with a relatively low Al composition in EBL, the electron barrier decreases with Al composition increased, which indicates that the downward of conduction band induced by polarization effect is larger than the increased band offset introduced by the higher Al composition. By further increasing the composition, the electron barrier increases along with composition, meaning that the band offset becomes dominant over the polarization effect. Compared with high current density, this turning point of composition is higher at low current density due to the enhanced polarization effect by less carrier screening. On the other hand, because of the original band offset between the last QB/p -GaN and the band bending, there are energy barriers for electron and holes exist at the interface even without the EBL. At 200 A/cm
2
, when the composition is lower than 0.20, the electron energy barrier is lower than the case of without EBL, but the hole barrier is higher approximately 64 meV. At 0.1 A/cm
2
, even with composition higher than 0.20, the electron barrier of AlGaN EBL (523 meV) is still 151 meV lower than the case of without EBL (674 meV), but the hole barrier is increased approximately 76 meV from 409 to 485 meV. These results indicate that both the electron confinement and hole injection could be deteriorated by the EBL with an incorrect composition, especially for micro-LED operating at low current density.
그림>
For a deep analysis, band structures of micro-LEDs with Al0.10 Ga0.90 N EBL and without EBL as representatives are illustrated in Fig. 8b, c. The EBL introduces two energy valleys at the interface of last QB/EBL and EBL/p -GaN for electron and hole accumulation, respectively, which can be confirmed by the carrier concentration diagram in Fig. 8d. Therefore, the electron confinement and hole injection are poor for this structure. When the EBL is removed, as shown in Fig. 8c, the energy barrier for electron is increased, and the energy valley for electron extracting and accumulation disappeares. These changes prevent electrons leakage more effectively, as confirmed in Fig. 8d. Meanwhile, the barrier height for hole injection is reduced, and the energy valley at the EBL/p-GaN interface is also removed. So, the hole can transport directly into the QW without facing large obstacle, as shown in Fig. 8c, d.
The above careful investigation suggests that without EBL may be a better structure for the micro-LED operating at low current density. Simulation results support our suggestion. Figure 8e illustrates the carrier current density at 0.1 A/cm
2
with different EBL structures. When the Al composition of the EBL is reduced from 0.15 to 0.04, the total electron and hole current densities increase from 0.167 and 0.159 A/cm
2
to 0.225 and 0.225 A/cm
2
, 각각. Moreover, when the EBL is completely removed, both the total electron and total hole current densities greatly increase to 0.528 A/cm
2
, which is approximately 3 times higher compared with the Al0.15 Ga0.85 N EBL. This enhancement is contributed to the improved electron confinement and hole injection.
Figure 8f shows the IQE curves at low current density. When the Al composition of EBL is reduced from 0.15 to 0.04, the IQE values increase evidently due to the improved carrier transport. However, by removing the EBL, the IQE value experiences a slight decrease compared with Al0.04 Ga0.96 N EBL. This can be explained by the carrier matching in two QWs. As indicated by the green arrows in Fig. 8e, a, perfect carrier matching occurred in both the two QWs with Al0.04 Ga0.96 N EBL. With the increase of current density by removing EBL, the matching of electron and hole flux has been slightly broken in the first QW, where the electron current density is slightly higher than the hole. Therefore, the IQE is slightly reduced because of this carrier mis-matching in one QW.
The superiority of micro-LED without EBL is still remarkable due to the improved carrier transport. As shown in Fig. 8g, at 0.1 A/cm
2
, the integral EL intensities of micro-LED without EBL are 3.53, 3.23, and 2.38 times higher compared with the LED with Al0.15 Ga0.85 N, Al0.10 Ga0.90 N and Al0.04 Ga0.96 N EBL, respectively. Moreover, as shown in the inset of Fig. 8g, the working voltages under 1 A/cm
2
and 0.1 A/cm
2
are reduced about 0.53 V and 0.57 V by removing the EBL, respectively. This improves the electrical efficiency, then finally increases the WPE of micro-LED. To further confirm that the EBL-free structure is a better design for micro-LED operating at low current density, another simulation is performed using the reported blue micro-LED structure with maximal known efficiency. The results and discussions can be found in the Supporting Materials (Additional file 1:Fig. S4a-d).
Optimized Structure for Micro-LED Operating at Low Current Density
Based on above simulation and analysis, the optimized epitaxial structure specifically designed for the efficient micro-LED emissive display operating at low current density is proposed, as shown in Fig. 9. Three principles must be followed. First, in contrast to the traditional large-size high-power nitride LED, the QW number of micro-LED should be reduced to just two, which has a better condition for the carrier matching, a more concentrated radiative emission, and higher IQE and WPE. Second, the p -type doing still needs to be enhanced due to the relatively low hole concentration and mobility compared with the electron in nitride, which demands a more efficient p -type doping strategy. Third, to improve the carrier transport and matching, the doping concentration of AlGaN EBL should be greatly enhanced, or the AlGaN EBL can be completely removed. Without using the AlGaN EBL, the electron confinement, hole injection, carrier matching, IQE, and WPE of the micro-LED can be greatly improved at low current density.
Schematic illustration of the optimized epitaxial structure designed specifically for the micro-LED emissive displays operating at low current density
그림> Auger Recombination and SRH Non-radiative Recombination
Based on Eq. (3), except for radiative recombination, the SRH and Auger recombination also play critical roles in the IQE of LED. Hence, it is important to investigate the effects and mechanism regarding the SRH and Auger recombination for the micro-LED. In this part, the LED structure with 2QWs is still used, and all the simulation parameters are the same as mentioned in the Methods except for SRH lifetimes.
Negligible Auger and Prominent SRH Recombination
The SRH recombination rate can be expressed as follows [57]:
$$R_{{{\text{SRH}}}} =\frac{{np - n_{i}^{2} }}{{\tau_{p} \left( {n + n_{i} \exp \left( {\frac{{E_{T} }}{kT}} \right)} \right) + \tau_{n} \left( {p + n_{i} \exp \left( {\frac{{E_{T} }}{kT}} \right)} \right)}},$$ (8) $$\tau_{p} =\frac{1}{{c_{p} N_{t} }}, \tau_{n} =\frac{1}{{c_{n} N_{t} }},$$ (9) $$c_{p} =\sigma_{p} \nu_{p} , c_{n} =\sigma_{n} \nu_{n} ,$$ (10)
where n 나 is the intrinsic carrier concentration, τ p 그리고 τ n are the hole and electron SRH lifetimes, respectively, E T is the energy difference between the trap level and the intrinsic Fermi level, c p and c n are the capture coefficients for electron and hole, N 그 is the trap density, σ p and σ n are capture cross sections for electron and hole, and ν p and ν n are the average thermal velocities of electron and hole, respectively. According to Eqs. (8)-(10), the SRH recombination of a trap is completely specified by its density, capture cross sections and energy level.
The Auger recombination rate is given by the following:
$$R_{{{\text{Auger}}}} =\left( {C_{n} n + C_{p} p} \right)\left( {np - n_{i}^{2} } \right),$$ (11)
where C n and C p are the Auger recombination coefficients.
Given that the injected hole and electron concentrations are much higher than the intrinsic carrier concentration in the undoped QWs (according to simulation result, the highest carrier concentration in QW is only approximately 10
7
cm
−3
in the absence of externally injected current), the SRH and Auger recombination rate can be further simplified as the following equations:
$$R_{{{\text{SRH}}}} =\frac{np}{{\tau_{p} n + \tau_{n} p}},$$ (12) $$R_{{{\text{Auger}}}} =\left( {C_{n} n + C_{p} p} \right)np.$$ (13)
Equations (12) and (13) clearly show that R SRH is in direct proportion to the first power of the carrier concentration, but R Auger depends on the third power of the carrier concentration, that is, R SRH is sensitive to low current density, while the R Auger is more dominant at high current density.
This theoretical analysis agrees with our simulation results. Figure 10a, b shows the calculated radiative, SRH, and Auger recombination rates at 200 and 0.1 A/cm
2
, 각각. At high current density, the Auger recombination rate (about 0.8–1.4 × 10
29
cm
−3
s
−1
) is comparable wiht the radiative rate (about 4.2–6.0 × 10
29
cm
−3
s
−1
). In fact, the substantial problem of efficiency droop at high drive currents is now widely acknowledged as caused by the Auger recombination [20]. While, at low current density, relatively, the Auger recombination rate dramatically decreases to two orders of magnitude lower (about 6.3–7.2 × 10
22
cm
−3
s
−1
) than the radiative recombination (about 3.7–4.0 × 10
24
cm
−3
s
−1
). Therefore, the Auger recombination should be negligible at low current density. Conversely, with the decrease of current density, the SRH recombination rate relatively increases from a small value at 200 A/cm
2
(two orders of magnitude lower than radiative recombination) to a level comparable with the radiative emission at 0.1 A/cm
2
. As a result, the micro-LED operating at low current density requires improvement in the SRH or defect recombination instead of the Auger recombination.
Radiative, SRH, and Auger recombination rates of 2QWs LED a at 200 A/cm
2
그리고 b at 0.1 A/cm
2
. ㄷ SRH/Radiative ratio with various SRH lifetimes at 200 and 0.1 A/cm
2
. d IQE values at 200 and 0.1 A/cm
2
, e IQE curves with large current density and f IQE curves with low current density at various SRH lifetimes
그림> Requirement for Low Defect Density
According to Eq. (9), SRH lifetimes, τ p 그리고 τ n , are in inverse proportion to the density of defects N 그 . Therefore, the effect of defect density can be estimated by simply changing the SRH lifetime in the simulation. Figure 10c shows the calculated ratio of SRH/radiative recombination rate at various SRH lifetimes. With the decrease of SRH lifetimes from 150 to 50 ns, i.e., the increase of defect density, the SRH/radiative ratio slightly increases from 0.01 to 0.03 at 200 A/cm
2
, but greatly increases from 0.15 to 0.43 at 0.1 A/cm
2
. This means that a much larger percentage of carriers is consumed by the trapping defects at low current density. Therefore the efficiency is much more sensitive to the defect density at low current than high current density. The IQE results as shown in Fig. 10d, e confirm this trend. With the decrease of SRH lifetimes from 150 to 50 ns, IQE only decreases about 0.01 at 200 A/cm
2
, but dramatically decreases about 0.17 at 0.1 A/cm
2
. Moreover, as shown in Fig. 10f, with the decrease of SRH lifetime, the position of peak IQE also moves from 3.1 A/cm
2
to a higher current density of 9.0 A/cm
2
, and the IQE curves become less steep and sharp, which means that the threshold/onset current is increased. This is disadvantageous for improving the efficiency of micro-LED at low current density.
Compared with the traditional large-size high-power LED working at high current density, the micro-LED operating at low current density is much more sensitive to defect density, and minimizing the defect recombination is of paramount importance for achieving a high efficiency. Therefore, the micro-LED requires a much more higher crystal quality of materials than the traditional LED, and poses large challenges for the epitaxial growth of the material and the fabrication of the device for the community.
섹션> 결론
In summary, the operating behaviors, mechanisms and conditions of InGaN micro-LED operating at low current density are numerically investigated, and an optimized epitaxial structure specifically designed for the micro-LED display is proposed. Analysis of the polarization effect shows that micro-LED suffers a severer QCSE at low current density. Hence, improving the efficiency and controlling the emission color point are more difficult. Carrier transport and matching are analyzed to determine the operating conditions of micro-LED. It is shown that less QW number can improves the carreir matching and leads to higher efficiency and output power at low current density. Effectiveness of the EBL for micro-LED is analyzed, and electron confinement and hole injection are found to be improved simultaneously at low current density by removing the EBL. Moreover, simulaiton has shown that the Auger recombination is negligible, but the SRH recombination greatly influences the efficiency of micro-LED at low current density, which has raised higher requirements for the crystal quality of materials and the fabrication process of devices. Our numerical study can provide valuable guidance for creating efficient micro-LED display and promote future research in this area.
섹션> 데이터 및 자료의 가용성
The data and the analysis in the current work are available from the corresponding authors on reasonable request.
섹션> 약어 Micro-LED:
Micro-light-emitting-diode
QCSE:
Quantum-confined Stark effect
EBL:
Electron blocking layer
SRH:
Shockley–Read–Hall
LCD:
Liquid–crystal display
OLED:
Organic light-emitting diode
TV:
Televisions
VR:
Virtual reality
AR:
Augmented reality
QW:
Quantum well
MQW:
다중 양자 우물
EQE:
외부 양자 효율
IQE:
내부 양자 효율
QB:
Quantum barrier
WPE:
Wall-plug efficiency
CIE:
Current injection efficiency
리:
광추출 효율
섹션>