총 에너지 곡선. 그림 9는 총 에너지 곡선을 보여줍니다. SiC가 단결정 구리 공작물을 절단하는 과정에서 공작물에 대한 연마 입자의 영향은 두 가지 형태로 나타납니다. 단결정 구리 공작물과 SIC 입자의 접합 영역; 다른 부분은 위치 에너지로 변환되고 단결정 구리 공작물의 내부 구조가 변경되고 격자가 변형되고 격자 에너지가 방출되어 위치 에너지로 변경됩니다. 아 3D 곡선. ㄴ 윤곽
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공작물 재료를 다양한 각도로 절단하는 과정에서 연마 입자는 절단 방향을 따라 이동하여 공작물의 구리 원자를 강제로 이동시킵니다. 공작물의 이동 방향 분석에서 연마 입자가 공작물 재료에 미치는 영향, 칩 형성 방식 및 재료 제거가 완전히 명확해집니다. Ackland-Jones가 제안한 결합각 분석 방법에 따르면 관찰 및 분석을 위해 서로 다른 원자 격자 구조가 다양한 색상으로 표시됩니다. ZOY 평면은 개별 SiC 입자의 절단 과정을 관찰하기 위해 선택되었으며 절단 영역의 원자 변위 다이어그램은 그림 10에서 볼 수 있듯이 확대됩니다.
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다른 절단 각도로 인해 원자 변위가 발생합니다. 그림 10은 다양한 절단 각도의 원자 변위를 설명합니다. 단결정 SiC 지립이 구리를 절단하는 공작물에 서로 다른 방향으로 충돌하여 SiC 지립이 절단되면 절단 방향의 속도가 80m/s, [001] 방향의 이동 속도이므로 절단 깊이가 증가합니다. v 입니다 z =0.8 * sin θ , 절단 각도의 절단 깊이가 증가함에 따라 동일한 절단 각도에서 시뮬레이션 단계가 증가함과 동시에 절단 깊이가 큽니다. 아 0° 변위. ㄴ 5° 변위. ㄷ 10° 변위. d 15° 변위. 이 20° 변위. 에 25° 변위. 지 30° 변위. 아 35° 변위. 나 40° 변위. j 45° 변위. (원자색: HCP 구조, BCC 구조, 백색 비정질 구조로서의 FCC 구성)
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단결정 SiC 연마 입자가 공작물과 충돌하여 구리를 다른 방향으로 절단하면 공정을 따라 절단 깊이가 증가합니다. 절단 방향의 속도는 80m/s이며, 여기서 [001] 방향의 구성요소 속도는 v 입니다. z =0.8
*
죄 θ . At the same simulation step, cutting depth increases with increasing the cutting angle. As shown in Fig. 10, there is an atomic position shift in both of the surface and interior of the workpiece material, contacting with the abrasive grains, where atoms of different lattice types are arranged and doped with each other. Due to the movement of these abrasive particles, the copper atoms accumulated at the tip of the abrasive grains, which results no cracks during abrasive particles cutting. It can be seen that the material removal mode of the abrasive particles is plastic deformation. At the same time, due to abrasive cutting, the atoms displacement in single crystal copper increases from 15° to 45°.
The number of the workpiece atoms along the abrasive grain motion direction also increases, and the atomic displacement is perpendicular to the direction of abrasive cutting. This part of the atomic displacement is due to that of the abrasive particles, change the cutting action to the extrusion upon the workpiece atoms. At cutting angle, the abrasive particles is between 0° and 10°, while the cutting depth is smaller than those of the 15° to 45°. Abrasive particles are performing mainly the cutting function, the extrusion of the workpiece atoms is marginal, and the number of atoms is small whose displacement direction is perpendicular to the direction of the abrasive grain motion. With the repeated cutting on the workpiece surface by numerous abrasive particles, the abrasive particles having large cutting angle produce deep pits on the workpiece material during the whole cutting process, while ones following smaller cutting angles will continue cutting along the cutting mark produced by the former. Under the combined action, the workpiece material is cut to a certain depth (micro-cutting) followed by whole abrasive flow polishing.
Dislocation Collision Analysis for SiC Abrasive Cutting
Dislocation is a special arrangement of atoms in crystal along certain crystal surface and crystal direction, or a boundary between the slip zone and the non-slip zone on the slip surface. Dislocation can be divided into edge dislocation, spiral dislocation, and mixed dislocation, among which mixed dislocation is most common. In the process of abrasive particle cutting, the single crystal copper workpiece is plastically deformed, the atoms move, and the crystal lattice breaks and reconstructs, which results in a large number of dislocations. The analysis for dislocation and bond angles at different incidence angles is shown in Fig. 10. In the simulation model of abrasive flow simulation, two abrasive particles are used for cutting the workpiece material. For ease of analysis, the generation and change of different dislocation lines in single crystal copper material, during cutting process and the different lattice structures in the cutting part are analyzed in the view of one single SiC particle on the YOZ surface, as shown in Fig. 11.
Different angles-bond angle dislocation line charts. Figure 11 represents the cutting dislocation line and the bond angle. As the repeated cuttings on the workpiece surface are done by the numerous abrasive particles during the polishing process, in the entire cutting process, the abrasive particles with larger cutting angle produce bigger pits, while the following abrasive particles with smaller cutting angles continue to polish along the cutting trace. Therefore, certain depth is done on the workpiece material and the whole micro-cutting of abrasive flow polishing is achieved. 아 Dislocation lines with 0° cutting angles. ㄴ Dislocation lines with 5° cutting angles. ㄷ Dislocation lines with 10° cutting angles. d Dislocation lines with 15° cutting angles. 이 Dislocation lines with 20° cutting angles. 에 Dislocation lines with 25° cutting angles. 지 Dislocation lines with 30° cutting angles. 아 Dislocation lines with 35° cutting angles. 나 Dislocation lines with 40° cutting angles. j Dislocation lines with 45° cutting angles. (Note:the upper part of the key angle analysis, the figure in the atomic color: HCP BCC Amorphous structure Abrasive grain; the lower part of the dislocation line diagram, the figure dislocation line color: Stair-rod, Shockley, Hirth, Perect, Frank, Burgers vectors)
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Key angle analysis diagram of each cutting angle is shown in Fig. 11, where the sample from the interior workpiece simulation at time 60 and 70 ps, the atoms are colored individually according to different arrangement of atoms through BAD technology. To facilitate the analysis of the lattice changes in the cutting part, atoms of the FCC structure in the workpiece material are removed. By DXA techniques, different types of dislocations are marked in diverse colors:red arrow indicates the Burgers vector (Burgers vectors), green for Shockley partial dislocations (Shockley), light blue for the Frank partial dislocations (Frank), pink pole position for the pressure error (Stair-rod), and blue for the whole dislocation (Perfect).
As can be observed from the analysis of the bond angle portion in Fig. 11, a large number of dislocations and lattice deformations occurred under the impact of external cutting forces. The bond angle analysis shows that the internal HCP structure of the workpiece appears more clearly with increasing of cutting angle. On further simulations, the structure of HCP increases gradually. The silicon carbide particles continuously cut and squeeze the workpiece material at 80 m/s speed, resulting in a phase transition from the FCC structure to the HCP structure. During this phase transition, the atomic strain of the workpiece continues to increase. However, when the stress state of atoms of the workpiece has exceeded the threshold of thermodynamic phase transition, it turns to metastable state. As the strain increases, the HCP phase begins to nucleate and grow spontaneously, and the FCC lattice of copper undergoes absolute destabilization, which induces a sudden change in mechanical quantities. As the kinetic energy of the atom is directly related to the atomic temperature (formula 1), there is a saltatory augment in the kinetic energy change curve, as can be seen from Fig. 7. This is due to high strain energy, accumulated in the single crystal copper workpiece before the nucleation of HCP. The HCP structure increases the system temperature through metastable nucleation and partial stress release. Due to the abrasive cutting and extrusion, bonds of copper atoms in workpiece material break down which results in disorder. The original regular lattice structure is broken, where the partial copper atoms gradually change into disorder and form an amorphous structure. It can be seen from the bond angle analysis diagram that (Fig. 11) atoms with relatively disordered displacement tend to form amorphous structures at 60 and 70 ps, which is because of silicon carbide abrasive particles. At the same time, many atoms with the same displacement direction are transformed into HCP structures. Meanwhile, the particles shear downward and the atomic structure is rearranged due to the displacement of atoms in the original amorphous structure, results an amorphous structure of HCP. Atoms that have already been transformed into HCP structures, even before the next cut stage, change back into amorphous structure. As the cutting depth increases, the number of amorphous atoms near the abrasive particles also increases.
When the FCC crystal structure undergoes cutting by abrasive particles, a shear stress generates in atoms, which results in the displacement of atoms in the lattice and the arrangement of various lattice structures. In moving the atoms of workpiece, the rigid displacements of the atoms produce dislocations, also called as dislocation lines (Fig. 11). Dislocation line can be termed as the boundary between the slip zone and the non-slip zone, on the slip surface. According to the relation between the dislocation and the PATS vector, dislocation is parallel to the PATS vector, called the screw dislocations. The vertical ones are edge dislocations, and the mixed dislocations are neither parallel nor vertical. In Fig. 11, most of the dislocation lines are neither parallel nor vertical to PATS vectors, which are typical mixed dislocations. In the cutting process of abrasive particles, the dislocation line changes, moves and grows around the abrasive particles. The closer the particle, the greater the density of the dislocation line. Dislocation lines are also very dense, when the arrangement of atoms is complicated. The abrasive particles marked as orange, produce a large amount of HCP, BCC, and amorphous structures around them, which interlace and blend with each other to form dislocations that increases the internal energy of the crystals. When atoms arrange their self just like shown in Fig. 12b, possess maximum potential energy. While for the arrangement, shown in Fig. 12a–b, the atoms situate at the lowest potential energy position. The number of dislocation lines is directly related to the magnitude of strain energy of the crystal. The total strain energy of the unit length dislocation can be measured with the given formula:
$$ W=\alpha {Gb}^2 $$ (3)
Schematic view of dislocation changes. Dislocation is a special arrangement of atoms in crystals. It is the crystal in the atomic arrangement along a certain crystal face and crystal orientation occurred in a certain wrong line, and it is the boundary of the slip surface within the area where the slip has occurred and the area with no slip has occurred. In Fig. 12a –ㄷ , the relative displacement of the rigidity of the upper atom and the underlying atom produce dislocations, the upper atom belongs to the sliding region, and the lower atoms belong to the non-slip region, they are in the slip surface of the intersection line which is called dislocation line, that is, dislocation. Figure 12 is the process of dislocation generation and development
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Where, α is the geometric factor (type dislocations, dislocation density) parameter related to, and generally 0.5 ~ 1.0; G is the shear modulus, and b is the slippage distance.
When the workpiece material is being cut, particles break the atomic arrangement and the lattice reconstructs, which constitutes, macroscopically, the plastic deformation of the workpiece material. In the process of plastic deformation, the dislocation was supposed to escape from the crystal and decrease the dislocation density. However, this dislocation density increases due to dislocation propagation. There are many ways of dislocation multiplication and the main one is the Frank–Reed dislocation source theory, of which the growth mechanism is shown in Fig. 11. As illustrated in Fig. 11, the density of the dislocation line increases markedly from 60 to 70 ps when the cutting simulation proceeds, change both the number and shape of dislocation lines in accordance with Frank–Reed dislocation source theory. At simulation time of 60 ps, there are many long Shockley dislocations. But after another 10 ps simulating, the long Shockley dislocation line becomes less and shorter. The original straight dislocation lines turn into bent, which is especially evident near the abrasive grains. From formula 3, the strain energy of the dislocation is proportional to b
2
. From the viewpoint of energy, the dislocations with the smallest b in the crystal should be most stable with low energy; however, dislocations with larger b will break down into ones. In addition, the energy of the dislocation is valued by the unit length of the dislocation line. Given the shortest line between two points is the straight, the strain energy of straight dislocation is lower than that of the bent one, means straight dislocations are more stable. Frank–Reed dislocation source theory argued that the long dislocation line becomes shorter and breaks down into smaller dislocations, thus decreasing the strain energy of the crystal.
Analysis for Friction Coefficient Between Workpiece Surface and Abrasive Particles
To quantitatively disclose mechanical properties and surface effect of SiC abrasive cutting single crystal copper material, the tangential force ([010] direction) and normal force ([001]direction) on the cutting surface are further analyzed. The friction coefficient can be defined as the ratio of the tangential force to the normal force, with the formula below:
$$ f=\frac{F_y}{F_z} $$ (4)
Figure 13 shows the variation of friction coefficient along different cutting angles during abrasive cutting. The change of friction coefficient can be divided into two periods. Period I, when the cutting distance is less than half of the size of the abrasive particle, the friction coefficient fluctuates violently in certain range due to surface effect of the material; while in period II, all the friction coefficients fluctuate in very small range, and the friction coefficients remains steady state at different angles. However, at cutting angle of 5°, there is a small amount of abnormal fluctuation at the end of simulation. Moreover, in period I, abrasive particles contact the workpiece atoms to the abrasive grains enter into the workpiece of half abrasive diameter (shown in Fig. 13b), the cutting movement distance reaches 7.5 Å. In Fig. 6, the cutting force change curve shows that the tangential force and normal force are in an oscillating phase during period I. Since the friction coefficient can be characterized as the adhesion among atoms in the contact surface and is related to the two atoms contacting with each other, regardless of the cutting mode, which can interpret the phenomenon that change of cutting angle does not cause significant change of friction coefficient, as shown in Fig. 13a.
Friction coefficients of different cutting angles. Figure 13 is the changes of the frictional coefficients during SIC particles cutting single crystal copper from different angles. The change in cutting angle did not cause significant changes in friction coefficient. It described two kinds of coefficient of friction in contact with the relevant atoms in the cutting process, regardless of the cutting mode. 아 Friction coefficient variation curve with cutting angle. ㄴ Instantaneous structure when SiC abrasive grains move 7.5 Å
그림> 섹션> 결론
The micro cutting simulation of single crystal copper by SiC abrasive particles is achieved during abrasive flow polishing. Comprehensive analysis of the SiC abrasive cutting reveals that when SiC abrasive particles cut at angle from 0° to 15°, cutting forces in along Y and Z direction are relatively small and tend to stay steady. A larger cutting angle results more dislocations, which brings about larger grooves damaging of the workpiece material. In the process of cutting, it is necessary to avoid more dislocations, which has an immediate adverse effect on the performance of all aspects of crystal material. Therefore, a cutting angle of 0° is better than other angles. Considering the amount of dislocation produced, or the change of cutting force and energy in the cutting process; cutting with small or medium angles is not only beneficial for improving surface quality but reduce the internal defects.
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