F-액틴은 MKL1 및 YAP/TAZ를 통해 TiO2 나노튜브에서 중간엽 줄기 세포의 조골 세포 분화를 조절합니다

토론

Titanium and titanium alloys are the most widely used metal materials in orthopedic clinical implants due to the good properties of titanium [3]. However, aseptic loosening is still an urgent problem to be solved and improved, and the key is likely to lie in improving the integration of the implant and the host bone. Previous studies have shown that surface coating and modification or immobilization of biofunctional molecules will be beneficial to osseointegration [37]. Recently, the surface topography of implants has attracted the attention of many researchers thanks to studies into the cell response to physical cues [9,10,11, 13, 38]. In this study, we demonstrated the ability of nanotubes to promote osteogenic differentiation of MSCs, and this ability was enhanced with increasing inner diameter of the nanotubes (30–70 V). This will help guide the diameter of the nanotubes on the surface of the implants.

As a topographical structure, nanotubes first change the physical properties of the material, such as adsorption capacity and electrical and thermal conductivity. These physical properties determine their application in the industrial field. For example, most high-voltage power transformers need to be filled with insulating material, which is usually transformer oil or insulating gas. When the insulation of a transformer fails due to overheating and partial discharge, a serious discharge accident will occur. Therefore, finding an effective method that accurately detects the concentration and types of dissolved gases or insulating gas decomposition components in a transformer is necessary to monitor the operating state of the transformer [8, 39,40,41]. The traditional approach is to look for materials with good gas adsorption in transition elements, which are rich in d electrons, such as Pd(1 1 1) [39]. Nowadays, nanotubes are widely studied for their good gas adsorption properties. 그는 외. found that CuO-BNNT was suitable for the adsorption of C₂ H₂ , because of its stronger adsorption on C₂ H₂ [8]. Meanwhile, TiO₂ itself can be a gas-sensing material. Gui et al. found that Co-doped TiO₂ further enhanced gas adsorption capacity and exhibited a superior adsorption ability and conductivity change toward C₂ H₄ molecules [40]. Consistent with this study, Mn-doped graphene also exhibited enhanced conductivity and superior capability of C₂ H₂ and CO detection than pristine graphene [41]. The above research indicates that the TiO₂ nanotubes prepared in our experiment have a potential application in the field of monitoring the operative state of a transformer. However, the adsorption capacity and electrical conductivity of the nanotubes to gases need to be further studied, especially whether these properties are enhanced after doping with transition elements (e.g., Mn).

In addition to changing the physical properties of a surface, nanoscale morphology also affects the biological behavior of the cells attached to it. Cells first adhere to the surface of the material and then migrate, proliferate, and differentiate. Compared to a flat surface, the hollow structure of the nanotubes provides fewer adhesion sites for cells. Therefore, in order for the cells to adhere to the nanotube surface steadily and maintain the biomechanical balance within the cell, the focal adhesion complex begins to assemble and mature, and F-actin becomes strong and stable.

F-actin, a linear polymer microfilament consisting of G-actin monomers, is one of the three major components of the cytoskeleton. As a mechanical-loading structure, F-actin is generally believed to be involved in cell division, cell migration, endocytosis, and tumor cell invasion [28,29,30], but some recent studies showed that it can also affect cell differentiation [31,32,33, 36]. For example, actin cytoskeletal depolymerization by simvastatin induces chondrocyte differentiation [31], and actin depolymerization enhances adipogenic differentiation in human stromal stem cells [32]. Our results also revealed that, compared with the control group, MSCs cultured on nanotubes had higher F-actin levels and a more obvious fibrous structure. Meanwhile, promotion of F-actin polymerization by Jasp enhanced osteogenic differentiation, while the depolymerization of F-actin inhibited osteogenic differentiation, suggesting that F-actin mediates TiO₂ nanotube-induced osteoblastic differentiation of MSCs.

F-actin can be regulated by Rho GTPases, members of the Ras superfamily [23, 42], and Rho can induce actin reorganization through at least two effectors, ROCK and Dia. ROCK is activated by binding to Rho-GTP and then myosin light chain (MLC), the substrate of ROCK, plays an important role in F-actin assembly. ROCK inhibits the activity of MLC phosphatase, leading to an increase in MLC phosphorylation, which stimulates the ATPase activity of myosin II and promotes the assembly of F-actin. In addition, ROCK also targets LIM kinase (LIMK). Phosphorylated LIMK inactivates cofilin by phosphorylation, which can disassemble F-actin in its active state. Another effector is Dia, a member of the formin-homology (FH) family of proteins which contains two FH domains. These domains contain multiple proline-rich motifs which bind to the G-actin-binding protein, profilin. This interaction contributes to actin polymerization and F-actin organization [42]. We detected one of the Rho GTPases, RhoA, and found that the expression of RhoA was consistent with the level of F-actin. However, we were unable to clearly describe how the nanotubes regulate the expression of RhoA, because there are many other regulators, including integrin signaling, other adhesion receptors, G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), soluble factors such as LPA, receptor tyrosine kinase signaling, and so on [43].

Knowing that F-actin can be regulated by RhoA, we next asked what role focal adhesion played in this process, because focal adhesion complexes, containing integrins, talin, vinculin, paxillin, and focal adhesion kinase (FAK), are formed and mature when cells attach to the surface of nanotubes. Integrins are transmembrane heterodimers that couple the ECM to the other focal adhesion proteins so as to facilitate cell attachment. They not only act simply as hooks but also transmit to the cell critical signals about the nature of its surroundings, which along with other signals such as EGFR, prompt the cell to make decisions about its biological behaviors. These signals are further transmitted to F-actin, which is directly connected to the focal adhesion complexes. On the one hand, the nanoscale morphology causes focal adhesion complex assembly and maturation. On the other hand, kinases such as FAK and Src kinase family members will recruit molecules such as CRK to self-regulate the assembly and maturation of focal adhesion complexes [44,45,46]. Our results demonstrated that the formation and maturation of focal adhesion complexes were impaired by F-actin depolymerization, suggesting that there was a feedback from focal adhesion complexes to actin assembly in line with published reports.

However, it should not be ignored that these proteins contained in focal adhesion complexes have the function of signal transduction [47]. That is to say, nanotubes may directly regulate gene expression through signal cascades, and F-actin may just participate in or be affected by this process. For instance, the dual kinase complex of FAK and Src can regulate Rho GTPases such as RhoA. This shows that nanotubes can regulate RhoA through integrins and the FAK/Src complex. In addition Src, a non-receptor tyrosine kinase protein, can activate Ras (small GTPase) by phosphorylating FAK at tyrosine residue 925 [47, 48]. Then, Ras activates numerous biochemical pathways, including the well-studied MAPK pathway and the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway. In the MAPK pathway, Ras activates c-Raf, followed by mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MAP2K) and then MAPK1/2, also known as extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK). ERK in turn activates transcription factors such as serum response factor (SRF) and c-Myc that are involved in regulating growth and differentiation [49]. What is more, Runx2, a key transcription factor in osteogenic differentiation, can also be regulated by ERK [50], and our previous study confirmed that mechanical strain promoted osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs through the FAK-Erk1/2-Runx2 pathway [17]. Therefore, we cannot rule out that ERK plays a role in nanotube-induced osteogenic differentiation and further study is still needed.

So what exactly is the role of F-actin in inducing differentiation of nanotubes, because its change can affect cell differentiation? One possibility is that the change of F-actin assembly can inversely regulate the level of FAK so as to induce osteogenic differentiation through the FAK-Erk1/2-Runx2 pathway as described above, because in our results, focal adhesion complexes and actin polymerization showed the same trends of change, indicating that they act as a whole in response to the extracellular environment. However, some other possibilities also exist, and a number of articles have shown that MKL1 and YAP/TAZ act downstream of the actin dynamic balance [20, 51,52,53,54]. Both of them shuttle between the cytoplasm and the nucleus, and may help to transduce signals from the cytoskeleton to the nucleus.

MKL1, also termed myocardin-related transcription factor A, is sensitive to changes in G-actin levels. When cytoplasmic G-actin levels increase, monomeric G-actin binds to MKL1 and prevents it from binding to SRF and activating transcription. SRF target genes include actins such as smooth muscle actin (SMA) as well as other actin-binding proteins, including immediate early genes like c-fos and egr1. Recent studies have demonstrated that changing SRF activity could regulate adipogenesis by activating the adipogenesis transcription factor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), and also regulate bone formation via IGF-1 and Runx2 signaling [55, 56].

YAP and TAZ are two transcriptional coactivators in the Hippo signaling pathway, identified as an important regulatory pathway that restricts cell proliferation, thereby controlling organ size and morphogenesis [20]. Large tumor suppressor genes 1 and 2 (LATS1/2) phosphorylate them, thereby creating a binding site for 14-3-3 proteins, the binding of which prevents their nuclear import [53, 54]. As a consequence, phosphorylated forms of YAP/TAZ are sequestered in the cytoplasm, preventing the expression of genes like Ctgf and Areg. In addition, some studies have shown that YAP/TAZ can interact with T-box 5 (TBX5), RUNX2, and p73 to regulate gene expression [57,58,59]. Further, cell adhesion to cell matrix proteins has been shown to trigger YAP nuclear localization through an integrin/FAK/Src axis. In our study, the results suggested that this pathway was possibly involved in nanotube-induced differentiation. Further study into the downstream mediators of the integrin/FAK/Src axis should be carried out to clarify the specific mechanism.

On the other hand, more and more studies illustrate that F-actin interacts with Hippo signaling, and somehow inhibits the phosphorylation of YAP [54, 60], which is consistent with our experimental results that promoting F-actin polymerization reduces the expression of phosphorylated YAP. We hypothesize that ATP involved in the process of the transformation between G-actin and F-actin may also play an important role in the phosphorylation of YAP, which is yet to be studied.

After understanding the above possible molecular mechanisms, we can try to explain some of the experimental phenomena found in this study. Our results revealed that the larger the diameter of the nanotubes, the stronger the ability of the nanotubes to promote osteogenic differentiation. This is consistent with previous research [61, 62]. The reason for this phenomenon is that the larger the diameter of the nanotubes, the less adhesion sites they can provide to the cells, and the greater the assembly and maturity of focal adhesion complexes. Along with these, stress fibers made of F-actin will have greater strength and stability. These structures enhance the signaling that promotes osteogenic differentiation. Predictably, however, this effect is significantly reduced when the nanotubes become too large in diameter, making it difficult for the cells to adhere to the surface [12]. Similarly, when the height of the nanotubes is inconsistent, the differences in height can result in a change of adhesion site and rearrangement of the cytoskeleton, which will further affect cell differentiation. Intriguingly, even flat surface materials without nanotube modification can induce changes in cell differentiation. A number of studies have demonstrated that focal adhesion formation and stress fiber organization are regulated by substrate stiffness [63,64,65], and YAP/TAZ also plays an important role in this process. Therefore, it is obvious that the integrins–FAs (focal adhesions)–F-actin axis plays a role in the transduction of physical signals into intracellular chemical signals.

In summary, our results demonstrated that F-actin regulates osteoblastic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells on TiO₂ nanotubes through MKL1 and YAP/TAZ, whose target genes partly explained the proliferation and differentiation of MSCs. We know that there is no single change in the signal network and any change is regulated by numerous molecules and proteins. One type of biological behavior must be the result of the regulation of a series of signaling pathways. Nanotubes induce cell differentiation by triggering a complex network of signals, including integrins, proteins contained in focal adhesion complexes, FAK, Src, Rho GTPase, the MAPK pathway, the Hippo pathway, and other reported signaling pathways. At least as important, there are many signal cycles in the signal network and a downstream signal can regulate the upstream signal via feedback. In this study, we found that vinculin and FAK can be regulated backwards by F-actin assembly, increasing the uncertainty of molecular function. Therefore, more details of the molecular mechanism await further study.