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Biomedical Applications of Fluorescent Nanomaterials

Bioimaging

Quantum Dots for Bioimaging

Fluorescent nanomaterials have been widely used in bioimaging. Compared with conventional organic fluorescent molecules, fluorescent nanomaterials are equipped with many superior properties such as high photostability, tunable emission spectra and high quantum yields [89].

As early as 1998, QDs were first successfully applied in biological imaging [90]. Since then, applications of QDs in this field have been springing up gradually. Chen’s group applied it in bioimaging and nuclear targeting with great stability and biocompatibility in living cells [91]. In spite of the extremely high sensitivity and spatial resolution of QDs, poor performances on hydrophilicity and biocompatibility hindered their applications in bioimaging in vivo. To tackle this problem, it has been found that the water-solubility of QDs can be greatly improved by attaching thiol or other hydrophilic groups to the surface of quantum dots [92]. In the same way, with the intention of improving the effectiveness and specificity of in vivo targeted imaging, targeting molecules are attached to the surface of QDs. Furthermore, the wavelength region of the emission light can be controlled by altering the size of QDs.

The combination of QDs and inorganic metal ions can optimize the application of QDs in bioimaging because the QDs’ defect-site PL peaks will be utterly removed by controlling the proportion of doped inorganic metal ions. Kuwabata, S et al. modulated the degree of Ga ³⁺ doping in Ag–In–Se QDs. Thus, the QDs’ defect-site PL peaks were completely removed and a sharp band-edge emission peak come into appearance [93]. They found a blue shift of the band-edge PL peak ranging from 890 to 630 nm which could be credited to the fact that the energy gap of QDs was enlarged by Ga ³⁺ doping. After injecting a mouse with QDs, the potential of AIGSe@GaS_x core–shell QDs for bioimaging turned out satisfying. The imaging effect of this kind of QDs in mice is demonstrated in Fig. 2. However, sensing of mid-IR wavelengths is challenging due to increased dark currents and noise. HgTe QDs synthesized by colloidal method is a promising candidate for IR bioimaging by virtue of lower dark currents, higher-temperature operation, and higher detectivity [94].

Three-dimensional PL image superimposed on an X-ray CT image of the mouse subcutaneously injected with DSPC-AIGSe@GaS_x liposome dispersions (each 50 mm ³ ) in the back [78]

Carbon Dots for Bioimaging

The poor photostability of current fluorescent nanomaterials hinders their long-term bioimaging to a large extent. To overcome this limitation, CDs have been studied for bioimaging and some positive results have been obtained due to the great performance on PL efficiency. Enormous efforts have been put to improve their water solubility and lower their toxicity in organisms. At present, most CDs are facing a barrier in bioimaging, that is, their short-wavelength excitation disables deep penetration in tissue. Aside from this, being exposed under the short-wavelength for a long time could do irreversible damages to living cells and tissues. As shown in Fig. 3, with the purpose of overcoming this deficiency, Gao et al. designed fluorescent CDs with red emission which were successfully used for bioimaging of noble metal ions (Pt ²⁺ , Au ³⁺ , Pd ²⁺ ) in cells and zebrafish [95]. Sun and co-workers first studied the near infrared (NIR) imaging of CDs in vivo using mice as a model. Recently, it was reported that molecules or polymers containing plentiful sulfoxide or carbonyl groups can enhance NIR fluorescence through the surface modification. As shown in Fig. 4, under NIR excitation, sulfoxide or carbonyl groups are bound to the outer layers and the edges of the CDs. Thus, electron transitions are promoted, influencing the optical bandgap [96].

A Confocal imaging of Pt ²⁺ in PC12 cells. (a1–e1) Bright field images. (a2–e2) Black field images of the CDs in PC12 cells with the different concentrations of Pt ²⁺ (0, 25, 50, 150, and 300 μM). (a3–e3) Overlay images. B Fluorescence imaging of Pt ²⁺ in ZF. (a1–e1) Bright field images. (a2–e2) Fluorescence images of the CDs in ZF with the various concentrations of Pt ²⁺ (0, 30, 60, 100, and 150 μM) [80]

Schematic of structure and energy level alignments of nontreated CDs (left column) and CDs modified with S = O/C = O‐rich molecules (right column). The red (oxygen atom) and green double‐bonded balls represent the C = O/S = O‐rich molecule [81]

Carbon Nanoparticles for Bioimaging

In the field of bioimaging, fluorescent carbon nanoparticles show unique chemical and optical properties over traditional fluorescence probes. Different size, shape and elemental composition make carbon nanoparticles with different features. The biomedical fields are always seeking the most promising fluorescent carbon nanoparticles. Gaurav et al. obtained both larger and smaller size carbon nanoparticles with laser ablation method [97]. Both green and blue fluorescence were observed in the cells incubated with the carbon nanoparticles, suggesting their different sizes. Cell viability results indicated that the prepared carbon nanoparticles were nontoxic and safe for bioimaging applications. Shazid et al. employed carbonization method to obtain fluorescenct carbon nanoparticles derived from biocompatible hyaluronic acid. Both the in vitro and in vivo bioimaging studies showed that the prepared carbon nanoparticles would be reliable and stable for opticle imaging. Moreover, based on the experimenal data, their cytotoxicity was proved to be tolerable for biomedical applications.

Carbon Nanotubes for Bioimaging

Fluorescence of carbon nanotubes in the NIR is attracting high attention for their good light penetration depth in biological tissues. However, their low quantum yield requires for considerable excitation doses, leading to a fair degree of blue-shift and failure of penetrating live tissue. Mandal et al. reported that bright and biocompatible p-nitroaryl functionalized SWCNTs, encapsulated in phospholipid-polyethylene glycol, are suitable for bioimaging applications. The prepared SWCNTs enabled high signal-to-noise ratio imaging in live brain tissues using ultra-low excitation intensities. Their 1160 nm emissions in the NIR guarantee that they will provide optimal fluorescence imaging results [98]. Ceppi et al. applied SWCNT-based fluorescence imaging to debulking surgery in an ovarian cancer mouse model. SWCNTs are coupled to an M13 bacteriophage carrying modified peptide binding to the SPARC protein, which is overexpressed in ovarian cancer, leading to real-time imaging to guide intraoperative tumor debulking. This imaging system enables detection in the NIR window with a pixel-limited resolution of 200 μm, demonstrating real potential in fluorescence imaging guided surguries for patients [99].

Furthermore, fluorescent moieties can be conjugated by a carbon nanotube backbone, which integrate strong fluorescent ability with robust mechanism strength, exhibiting ideal bioimgaing results. Katharina et al. functionalized SWCNTs with an amphiphilic C₁₈ -alkylated polymer conjugated with bright perylene bisimide fluorophores. The polymers wrapping around the SWCNT backbones not only increase their water dispersibility but also promote their biocompatibility by providing a shield. In vitro studies on HeLa cells demonstrated that the biocompatibility of SWCNTs is dramatically improved. In microscopy studies, direct imaging of the SWCNTs' cellular uptake via perylene bisimide and SWCNT emission proved their potential for bioimging [100]. Park et al. combined carbon nanotubes with mussel adhesive proteins which can be specifically targeted at tumors in tissue. They then made carbon nanotubes conjugated with a ZW800 NIR fluorophore to obtain NIR fluorescence imaging [101]. The prepared carbon nanotube probes react with a specific tumor in one hour and can be easily eliminated via urine, demonstrating great value as tumor imaging and detecting agent.

Graphene-Based Nanomaterials for Bioimaging

Large surface area and feasible further functionalization make graphene-based nanomaterials a promising candidate for biomedical applications. However, as a result of their chemical sturctures, graphene nanosheets lack photoluminescence and rGO only display weak fluorescence, which makes it difficult to be utilized in bioimgaing applications. Many researchers attempted to resolve this problem by conjugation of fluorescent dyes and probes onto the large surface of graphene and its derivatives. Sun et al. reported an assembly strategy to prepare fluorescence probe RACD functionalized a single layer GO via π-π interaction and hydrogen bonding. The resluting nanomaterials exhibited that the fluorescent probes reduce the aggregation degree and acquire very well monodispersion, hydrophilicity and photostability, which is attributed to the strong synergy between RACD and GO [102]. Even so, fluorescence quenching remains a critical issue for these materials. In addition, the biocompatibility and toxicity of polymers applied to connect graphene-based materials and fluorescent moieties have not been adequately investigated. These facts appeal for alternative solutions to utilize graphene and its derivatives in bioimaging applications. Georgia et al. developed intrinsically photoluminescent graphene derivatives that show desirable biocompatibility and tunable fluorescence properties [103]. They can be organophilic or hydrophilic with different amine functionalization dodecylamine and hexamethylenediamine, respectively. The intrinsic fluorescent graphene-based nanomaterials possess great potential in a variety fileds of bioimgaing.

Metal Nanomaterials for Bioimaging

In recent years, fluorescent metal nanoparticles have shown great potential in bioimaging for improved disease diagnosis and treatment [104]. Gold is the most commonly used metal for bioimaging. The surface of AuNPs can be easily modified with various biomolecules such as peptides, proteins, antibodies, enzymes, and nucleic acids. These biomolecules can interact with specific cells or organelles in vivo, which makes it possible for AuNPs to be used for targeted optical imaging. Gao et al. reported a real-time in situ imaging of nucleus by AuNPs fabricated with bifunctional peptides constructed with both Au-binding affinity and nucleus-targeting ability. The bifunctional peptides showed strong binding affinity toward AuNPs and ensured good surface coverage of the nanoparticles, which made it stable and efficient for precise bioimaging of the nucleus in cells [105]. The Au-Se bond is considered as a better candidate than the Au–S bond to link the peptides and AuNPs due to the stronger ability against interference of intracellular thiol. Pan et al. prepared the Au-Se-peptide nanoprobes through a direct freezing process. The obtained nanoprobe was successfully applied to identify autophagy and apoptosis in chemotherapeutic drug treated cancer cells [106].

As a novel fluorescent imaging technology, DNA-templated silver nanoclusters (DNA-Ag NCs) have aroused the attention of many scientists due to their unique properties, especially the tunable fluorescence emission range relying on DNA sequences. However, the highly negatively charged DNA backbones have always been a great obstacle for the expansive applications in bioimaging because of poor stability as well as poor cell permeability in physiological environment. It is also noteworthy that the PL property and fluorescent efficiency of DNA-Ag NCs are far from satisfying. As a result, figuring out how to neutralize the negative charge on the surface of DNA strands is of great urgency for researchers. Recently, Lyu and co-workers successfully modified fluorescent DNA-Ag NCs with cationic polyelectrolytes via electrostatic force between the positively charged polyelectrolytes and the negatively charged phosphate groups of the DNA strands, leading to a threefold fluorescence intensity enhancement [7] (Fig. 5). Li et al. reported a facile strategy to make gold nanoclusters with positive charge and silver nanoclusters with negative charge form aggregates by electrostatic interactions. An incredible 40-fold fluorescence intensity enhancement was obtained. Results demonstrated that the physiological stability improved a lot and the cell permeability was also enhanced, which promises its practical applications in the future.

Formation of FL DNA–Ag NC–Cationic Polyelectrolyte Complexes for Cell Imaging [7]

Silica Nanoparticles for Bioimaging

Dye-doped fluorescent silica nanoparticles emerge with great potential for bioimaging as a novel and ideal platform for the monitoring of living cells and the whole body. The outer silica shell matrix protects fluorophores from outside chemical reaction factors as well as provides a hydrophilic shell for the inside insoluble nanoparticles, which renders the enhanced photo-stability and biocompatibility to the organic fluorescent dyes. Benefiting from the robust structure of silica matrices, dye-doped fluorescent silica nanoparticles have been presented with several superior properties including good biocompatibility, hydrophilic features, and high fluorescence intensity [107].

Jiao et al. also constructed a local hydrophobic cage in dye-doped fluorescent silica nanoparticles to improve their optical properties, which solves the problems of aggregation-caused quenching (ACQ) and poor photostability in aqueous media by organic fluorescence dyes benefiting from the robust structure of silica nanoparticles [108]. In addition, compared with free dyes, the fluorescent intensity both in water solution and living cells demonstrated a 12.3-fold enhancement due to the limitation of molecular motion, indicating a significant development for silica nanoparticles in biomedical applications. QDs have been developed for bioimaging both in vivo and vitro owing to their excellent optical qualities. However, a critical obstacle faced in QDs’ application in vivo is their poor biocompatibility. Inspired by the organic dye-conjugated silica-NPs, QDs-embedded silica-NPs have also been invented with the advantage that the excellent optical qualities of QDs can be retained, while the silica-NPs coat improves their biocompatibility to a large extent simultaneously. Darwish et al. reported that many QDs could be assembled around a central silica nanoparticle to form supra-NP assemblies. It was expected to be used for enhanced bioimaging because of their higher sensitivity and superior signal-to-background ratios [109]. There is reason to believe that silica-NPs conjugated with fluorescent nanomaterials with ideal optical properties will still be the dominant research interest in the future.

Phosphors for Bioimaging

For bioimaging, the sizes of phosphors need to be controlled so that they are small enough to be integrated with living cells. Furthermore, the aggregation of particles should be avoided for biocompatibility. Hence, the control of both particle sizes and dispersity in an aqueous solution is essential for the bioimaging application of the phosphors. Atabaev et al. prepared Eu, Gd-codoped Y₂ O₃ phosphors which had a spherical morphology within the range 61–69 nm. Enhanced PL emission and low toxicity made these phosphors suitable for bioimgaing applications [110].

Upconversion nanomaterials are able to convert lower-energy near-infrared photons to higher-energy ones as emission. This anti-Stokes photoluminescence process will lead to low background noise, large tissue penetration depth, and low photo-damage in bioimaging applications [111]. Lanthanide-based phosphors are able to show upconversion emission owing to their photodurability and low phonon energy. Nallusamy et al. reported a NIR–NIR bioimaging system based on Er ³⁺ :Y₂ O₃ phosphors by using NIR emission at 1550 nm under 980 nm excitation, which can allow a deeper penetration depth into biological tissues than ultraviolet or visible light excitation [112]. In addition, the surface of Er ³⁺ :Y₂ O₃ was electrostatically PEGylated to improve the chemical durability and dispersion stability under physiological conditions. Thakur et al. synthesized Ho ³⁺ /Yb ³⁺ co-doped GdVO₄ phosphors via a modified sol–gel method. The prepared phosphors showed brilliant red upconversion emission under NIR excitation, which may be useful in bioimaging of the biomolecules [113].

Organic Frameworks for Bioimaging

Careful selection of MOF constituents can yield crystals of ultrahigh porosity and high thermal and chemical stability, with some of them being luminescent [114]. Recently, Sava Gallis’s group described a novel multifunctional MOF material platform which showed a wide spectral region from 614 to 1350 nm covering the deep red to NIR region. Both porosity and tunable emission properties made them highly suitable for in vivo bioimaging [115]. What’s more, to overcome the obstacle of MOF’s low selectivity towards malignant tissues, Liu et al. developed a target-induced bioimaging by conjugating DNA aptamers using ZrMOF nanoparticles as quenchers [116]. Based on the quenching of ZrMOF nanoparticles, target-induced bioimaging is achieved upon binding with the target.

Biodetection

Since fluorescent nanomaterials can amplify the fluorescent signals significantly and be compatible with organisms, there is increasingly more research on their application in the rapid detection of biomolecules [117]. It will shorten the analysis time to a large extent if we are able to establish a real-time detection system by fluorescent nanomaterials. It has been discovered that multiple detection can be achieved by using QDs probes simultaneously [118, 119].

Pathogen Detection

Pathogens have been an unignorable threat to human health for centuries and these include many types of microorganisms ranging from bacteria (pathogenic Escherichia coli, Salmonella, and Streptococcus pneumoniae ) and viruses (Coronavirus, Influenza virus and hepatitis virus ). However, conventional methods for pathogen detection still need improvement of detection limits and detection speeds. For their applications in detecting pathogens, Tan and co-workers reported a bioconjugated nanoparticle-based biodetection for in situ pathogen quantification, which cost less than 20 min [120]. Tan’s success promises that quick and convenient pathogen detection is possible and can be achieved with these ingenious nanomaterials in the future. Here, we list diverse pathogens detected by fluorescent nanomaterials as shown in Table 2 [119, 121,122,123,124,125,126,127,128,129].

Nucleic Acid Detection

Apart from pathogen detection, fluorescent nanomaterials have also aroused more and more interest of scientists in the detection of DNA. Owing to the merits that a number of biomolecules can be attached to the surface of fluorescent nanomaterials, the signal intensity of fluorescent nanomaterials in DNA detection can be enhanced significantly. Tan and co-workers developed an DNA detection method to detect gene products using bioconjugated dye-doped fluorescent silica nanoparticle with high sensitivity and photostability [130]. Although the analysis of nucleic acid has been successfully achieved by real-time nanomaterial fluorescence systems, there are still many shortcomings such as complex procedures or expensive instruments. To address these disadvantages, Wang’s group introduced a highly sensitive and visualized detection of nucleic acid by the combination of strand exchange amplification (SEA) and lateral flow assay strip (LFA) [131]. The system, which is possible to be widely used in areas requiring limited resource, is mainly characterized by integrating SEA with LFA (Fig. 6). There is no denying that the extremely high fluorescent signal for bioanalysis plays an irreplaceable role in these applications.

Schematic illustration of the SEA-LFA strip for the detection of nucleic acids [110]

Drug Detection

In the field of drug analysis, a facile and low-cost analytical method is always in demand for high-speed detection of specific pharmaceutical compounds. Real-time detection of drugs can be achieved with selective and sensitive fluorescent nanomaterials owing to their outstanding optical properties. In the past decade, the modification of nanomaterials has lowered their detection limit and improved their detection accuracy significantly. Recently, it is reported that ampicillin can be detected in serum sample based on aptamer, its complementary strand (CS) and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) [132]. The limit of detection (LOD) of this method can be as low as 29.2 pM. However, there are still many limitations in the detection of drugs or target molecules in vivo. Due to low selectivity, conventional fluorescent nanomaterials inevitably generate false positive results and adverse effects in vivo. In addition, current tracking systems can hardly realize real-time tracking because of insufficient labels and excitation sources. Considering the above limitations, a new method using up/down conversion (UC/DC) PL nanomaterials has attracted increasing attention. Seo et al. reported a single-photon-driven UC/DC system which demonstrated outstanding performance in the detection of heavy metal ion (i.e. Hg ²⁺ ) in mussels [133]. LOD of the nanohybrids was ca. 1 nM. This system is appealing to researchers in the field of fluorescent nanomaterials for biomedical applications.

Drug Delivery

Until now, the technology of treating cancers with high efficiency and targeting function is not perfect enough. Under most circumstances, the anticancer drugs are distributed and released extensively in the body, which endangers the healthy cells and tissues irreversibly. Currently, a large variety of carriers for drug delivery have been designed. However, we can hardly supervise the distribution and result of the whole delivery process. Benefiting from the recent development of the surface modification technique, fluorescent materials capped with polymers like polyethylene glycol (PEG) can bond with drugs strongly and firmly. Then, the loaded drugs will be released in response to certain conditions such as pH, osmotic gradient and the surrounding environment. However, it should be confirmed whether the drugs are transported to the specific site or not. It’s also necessary for us to consider more details such as how much of the drugs is released in different positions. Aside from being drug carriers, fluorescent nanomaterials can also demonstrate the consequences of intracellular uptake due to their fluorescence property. QDs have been applied to monitor some important properties, such as delivery efficiency, release rate and distribution of drug molecules in vivo, which are beneficial for scientists in order to understand the specific targeting pathways of drug delivery within living cells. Duan and co-workers reported a facile pH-responsive fluorescent CDs drug delivery system [134]. Loaded with dox which is effective for gastric cancer, intracellular drug delivery and tracking could be simultaneously realized in patients (Fig. 7). The report highlighted the ability of fluorescent CDs to label and track the drug delivery process for at least 48 h, which showed a great potential in bioimaging, biolabeling and traceable drug delivery. Duan et al. designed a pH and receptor dual-responsive drug delivery system [135]. Hyaluronic acid was covalently attached to the surface of CDs, and doxorubicin was loaded by electrostatic self-assembly. In the tumor microenvironment (pH 5.6), the drug is released rapidly from the drug delivery system, while in the normal physiological environment (pH 7.4), the drug is hardly released. Endocytosis occurs when the drug delivery system reaches CD44 which is a receptor rich in tumor cells and can bind specifically to the hyaluronic acid. In addition, carbon nanotubes can be used for drug delivery by virtue of their high loading efficiency. Strong π-π interactions play a critical role in binding therapeutic agents with carbon nanotubes, which can be broke through changing external conditions, resulting in the release of drugs in specific position. Pennetta et al. functionalized single and multi-walled carbon nanotubes with a pyrrole derived compound to form a doxorubicin stacked drug delivery system. Biological studies showed that the synthesized nano-conveyors can effectively deliver the drug into cell lines and improve the therapeutic effects of doxorubicin [136].

Schematic illustration of the preparation (a ) and cellular uptake (b ) of the CDs-DOX drug delivery system [113]

Photodynamic Therapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a novel therapy method for tumors which utilizes the interaction between light and photosensitizer. In PDT, reactive oxygen species (ROS) is produced from oxygen by photosensitizers in the condition of specific wavelengths of light (mostly in the area of near infrared light). The specific mechanism is presented in Fig. 8. ROS includes singlet oxygen, superoxide radicals, hydrogen peroxide, and hydroxyl radicals that possess strong cytotoxicity which cause significant destruction of tumor cells. However, there exist many defects such as limited penetration depth [137], hydrophobic properties [138], photobleaching [139], complicated procedure [140], and tumor hypoxia. PDT agents can hardly be dissolved and they will disperse extensively in vivo once they are taken, making it impossible to be targeted and selected. Fluorescent nanomaterial based photodynamic therapy developed fast in recent years [141]. Combined with the unique properties that QDs possess, such as high fluorescent efficiency and great spectral resolution, the effect of PDT can be enhanced. Barberi-Heyob, M and coworkers significantly enhanced the photodynamic efficiency with a concentration of 8 nM because of the light dose-dependent response [142]. In addition, photodynamic therapy can sometimes do harm to the skin and eyes of patients due to its photosensitive side-effect. To alleviate these adverse effects, a novel nanoparticle-based drug carrier for photodynamic therapy is reported which can provide stable aqueous dispersion of hydrophobic photosensitizers. Meanwhile, the key step of photogeneration of singlet oxygen was preserved, which is necessary for photodynamic action [143]. It is obvious that QDs combined photodynamic therapy will replace the conventional PDT someday.

Schematic illustration of producing reactive oxygen species (ROS) for the photodynamic therapy (PDT) [119]